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one mind · Behavior

Psych & neuro

THE BRAINDiagram: THE BRAIN.THE BRAINleft hemisphere, lateral viewFRONTALPARIETALOCCIPITALTEMPORALCEREBELLUMBRAINSTEMmidbrainponsmedullalateral (Sylvian) fissurecentral sulcusanteriorposteriorFrontalplanning, personality, motor.Broca: productionParietalsomatosensory cortex, touch,spatial awarenessOccipitalvision, primary visual cortexTemporalhearing, memory.Wernicke: comprehensionCerebellumbalance, coordination,procedural memoryBrainstemmedulla (vital reflexes), pons,midbrainLimbic system sits deep and medial: amygdala (fear), hippocampus (new memories),hypothalamus (drives). The thalamus relays every sense except smell.
THE NEURON & THE SYNAPSEDiagram: THE NEURON & THE SYNAPSE.THE NEURON & THE SYNAPSECell body (soma)Dendrites: receiveAxon + myelin sheathNodes of Ranvier → saltatory conductionAxon terminalsPostsynaptic cellNeurotransmitterin the synaptic cleftResting potential ≈ −70 mVThreshold ≈ −55 mV → ALL-OR-NONE spikeNa⁺ in, then K⁺ outSignal ends by reuptake, enzymatic degradation, or diffusion. Refractory period prevents backward travel.
Sensory homunculus and two-point discrimination thresholdsTwo panels. Above, a horizontal strip divided into segments of differing width, one per body region, running from medial to lateral. Below, a horizontal bar chart of two-point discrimination thresholds in millimeters for five body regions.THE SENSORY HOMUNCULUS · cortical area tracks receptor densitypostcentral gyrus, medial (top of the brain) → lateral (down the side)ToesFootLegTrunkNeckArmHandFingersThumbFaceLipsTonguemediallateralhand, lips and tongue take roughly half the stripTWO-POINT DISCRIMINATION THRESHOLDthe smallest gap still felt as two points: low means fine resolutionFingertip2 mmLips5 mmPalm10 mmForearm39 mmBack44 mmThe two panels are the same fact: dense receptors → fine discrimination → large cortical map.A homunculus is drawn distorted because the cortex is: the back is enormous and gets almost no cortex.
NEUROTRANSMITTERSDiagram: NEUROTRANSMITTERS.NEUROTRANSMITTERSTransmitterMain roleToo much / too littleAcetylcholineVoluntary muscle, attention, alertness,parasympatheticLoss → Alzheimer’sDopamineReward, movement, executive functionExcess → schizophrenia (positive sx); loss →Parkinson’sSerotoninMood, sleep, appetiteLow → depressionNorepinephrineAlertness, wakefulness, fight-or-flightLow → depression; high → anxietyGABAMain INHIBITORY transmitter: hyperpolarizesLow → anxiety, seizuresGlutamateMain EXCITATORY transmitter, learning (LTP)Excess → excitotoxicityEndorphinsNatural painkillers, opioid receptorsMimicked by opiates/opioidsGABA and glycine inhibit; glutamate excites. Dopamine appears in reward, movement AND psychosis.
THRESHOLDS · the classic 50-50Diagram: THRESHOLDS · the classic 50-50.THRESHOLDS · the classic 50-50TermDefinitionWorked example: music playingAbsolute threshold ofsensationMinimum stimulus intensity that activates a SENSORYRECEPTOR 50% of the timeHair cells in the cochlea begin to depolarizeThreshold of consciousperceptionMinimum intensity for the stimulus to reach AWARENESS 50%of the time“Oh: there is music on.”Just-noticeable difference(JND)Smallest CHANGE detectable 50% of the time“Did you just turn it up?”Weber’s lawJND is a constant PROPORTION of the original stimulus, nota fixed amountAdding 1 kg is obvious on a 2 kg load,invisible on a 100 kg loadA stimulus can pass the absolute threshold without ever reaching conscious perception: that is subliminal.
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORYDiagram: SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY.SIGNAL DETECTION THEORYSTIMULUS PRESENT?Yes: signal presentNo: signal absentYou say “yes”You say “no”YOUR RESPONSEHITCorrectly detected thesignalFALSE ALARMReported a signal that wasnot there (Type I error)MISSFailed to detect a realsignal (Type II error)CORRECT REJECTIONCorrectly reported nothingd′ measures sensitivity; response BIAS moves hits and false alarms together. Motivation, expectation and consequences all shift the criterion.
GESTALT PRINCIPLES · the whole ≠ the sum of partsDiagram: GESTALT PRINCIPLES · the whole ≠ the sum of parts.GESTALT PRINCIPLES · the whole ≠ the sum of partsProximitygrouped because they are closeSimilaritygrouped because they look alikeContinuitywe follow the smooth pathClosurewe fill in the missing edgesSymmetrysymmetric parts group togetherFigure-groundone shape becomes the subjectThese are TOP-DOWN: your brain imposes organization the raw sensory data does not contain.
SLEEP STAGES & EEG WAVESDiagram: SLEEP STAGES & EEG WAVES.SLEEP STAGES & EEG WAVESAwake, alerthigh frequency, low amplitudeBETAAwake, relaxed / eyes closedslower, more regularALPHAStage 1: light sleephypnagogic jerks, easy to wakeTHETAStage 2most of total sleep timeTHETA + sleep spindles & K-complexesStage 3: slow-wave sleeplowest frequency, highest amplitude.Sleepwalking, night terrors, bed-wettingDELTAREM sleepvivid dreaming, muscle ATONIA, memory consolidationBETA-like “paradoxical” wavesOne cycle ≈ 90 min. Through the night: less slow-wave sleep, MORE REM. REM rebound follows deprivation.
THEORIES OF DREAMINGDiagram: THEORIES OF DREAMING.THEORIES OF DREAMINGTheoryClaimTell-tale wordingFreud: wish fulfilmentDreams express repressed unconscious desires; manifest contenthides latent content“hidden meaning”, “symbol”, “repressedwish”Activation-synthesisRandom pons signals; the cortex invents a story around them“random neural activity”, “the brainmakes sense of noise”Information processing /memory consolidationDreaming files and consolidates the day’s events“consolidation”, “sorting the day”Evolutionary / threatsimulationDreams rehearse dangerous scenarios, or carry no meaning atall“practice”, “survival advantage”Cognitive developmentDreams reflect the dreamer’s cognitive maturity and knowledge“children’s dreams are simpler”
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSDiagram: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS.PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGSClassEffectExamplesDepressantsReduce CNS activity; increase GABA. Slurred speech, disinhibition,respiratory depressionAlcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepinesStimulantsIncrease dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin. Alertness, euphoria,↑HR and BPAmphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine,ecstasyOpiates & opioidsBind endorphin receptors: analgesia, euphoria, sedation. OPIATE =natural poppy alkaloid; OPIOID = any opioid-receptor drug, incl.semi-synthetic and syntheticMorphine, codeine (opiates); heroin,oxycodone, fentanyl (opioids)HallucinogensDistorted perception, introspection; act largely on serotoninLSD, psilocybin, peyote, ketamineMarijuanaMixed profile: some depressant, some stimulant, some hallucinogenicTHC acting at cannabinoid receptorsReward pathway: ventral tegmental area → nucleus accumbens (via the mesolimbic dopamine tract), with prefrontal cortex input.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGDiagram: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGBEFOREFood (UCS)→Salivation (UCR)The reflex already existsBell (neutral stimulus)→no responseThe bell means nothing yetDURINGBell + Food→Salivation (UCR)Pair them, repeatedlyAFTERBell (CS)→Salivation (CR)The bell alone now worksAcquisition: the pairing phaseExtinction. CS alone, CR fadesGeneralization: similar bells workSpontaneous recovery. CR returns after a restDiscrimination: only THIS bell works
OPERANT CONDITIONINGDiagram: OPERANT CONDITIONING.OPERANT CONDITIONINGPositive/negative = adding or removing. Reinforcement/punishment = the behavior goes up or down.WHAT HAPPENS TO THE STIMULUS?ADD something (positive)REMOVE something (negative)INCREASEbehavior(reinforcement)DECREASEbehavior(punishment)EFFECT ON BEHAVIORPositive reinforcementAdd something pleasant: givea treat for sittingNegative reinforcementRemove something unpleasant:seatbelt alarm stops.Includes ESCAPE andAVOIDANCE learningPositive punishmentAdd something unpleasant: aspeeding ticketNegative punishmentRemove something pleasant:phone taken awayNegative reinforcement is NOT punishment: it still makes the behavior more likely.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENTDiagram: SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT.SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENTScheduleRuleResponse patternFixed ratioReward after a set NUMBER of responsesFast, with a short pause after each rewardVariable ratioReward after an unpredictable number ofresponsesHIGHEST and steadiest rate; most resistant to extinction:slot machinesFixed intervalReward for the first response after a set TIMEScalloped: activity ramps up as the deadline nearsVariable intervalReward for the first response after anunpredictable timeSlow and steady: checking your phone for textsRatio beats interval for speed; variable beats fixed for persistence. Variable ratio wins on both.
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORYDiagram: INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY.INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORYSENSORY MEMORYiconic (visual, < 1 s)echoic (auditory, ~3 s)ATTENTIONWORKING MEMORY7 ± 2 items, ~30 sphonological loop,visuospatial sketchpad,central executiveENCODINGLONG-TERM MEMORYunlimited, indefiniteRETRIEVALEXPLICIT (declarative): consciousEpisodic: events you lived through · Semantic: facts and meaningsIMPLICIT (non-declarative): unconsciousProcedural: skills and habits · Priming · Conditioned responsesLoss here = decayLoss here = displacementLoss here = interference or retrieval failure
THEORIES OF SELECTIVE ATTENTION · the dichotic-listening 50-50Diagram: THEORIES OF SELECTIVE ATTENTION · the dichotic-listening 50-50.THEORIES OF SELECTIVE ATTENTION · the dichotic-listening 50-50ModelOrder of processingWhat happens to the ignored earBroadbent. EARLY selectionsensory register → SELECTIVE FILTER → perceptualprocessing → consciousnessFiltered out before any meaning is extracted: you getnothing from itTreisman. ATTENUATIONsensory register → ATTENUATOR → perceptual processing→ consciousnessTurned DOWN, not off. Your own name can still breakthroughDeutsch & Deutsch. LATEselectionsensory register → perceptual processing → SELECTIVEFILTER → consciousnessFully processed for meaning, then discarded beforeawarenessWhere does the filter sit? Early = Broadbent. Middle (a dial, not a switch) = Treisman. Late = Deutsch & Deutsch.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDSDiagram: MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS.MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDSSelf-actualizationreaching your full potentialEsteemrespect, recognition, achievementLove and belongingfriendship, intimacy, familySafetysecurity of body, employment, healthPhysiologicalfood, water, sleep, homeostasislower needs must be met first
THEORIES OF EMOTION · the highest-yield 50-50 in P/SDiagram: THEORIES OF EMOTION · the highest-yield 50-50 in P/S.THEORIES OF EMOTION · the highest-yield 50-50 in P/STheorySequence after the stimulusBear-in-the-house exampleJames–Langestimulus → PHYSIOLOGICAL arousal → emotion is theinterpretation of that arousalHeart pounds → “I must be afraid.”Cannon–Bardstimulus → arousal AND emotion SIMULTANEOUSLY andindependentlyHeart pounds and you feel fear at the sameinstant.Schachter–Singer(two-factor)stimulus → arousal → COGNITIVE LABEL of the arousal → emotionHeart pounds → “that is a bear” → fear.Lazarusstimulus → COGNITIVE APPRAISAL first → arousal and emotiontogether“That is a bear” → heart pounds and fear arrivetogether.Both Schachter–Singer and Lazarus involve appraisal. In Schachter–Singer the arousal comes FIRST and is then labeled; in Lazarus the appraisal comes first.
STRESS · appraisal and the General Adaptation SyndromeDiagram: STRESS · appraisal and the General Adaptation Syndrome.STRESS · appraisal and the General Adaptation SyndromeStressorPRIMARY appraisalis this a threat?SECONDARY appraisalcan I cope with it?Lazarus: stress is what happens when demands EXCEED perceived resources.ALARMsympathetic surge, adrenaline,fight-or-flightRESISTANCEcortisol keeps you going;arousal stays highEXHAUSTIONresources depleted: illness,burnout, immunosuppressionSelye’s General Adaptation SyndromeProblem-focused coping: change the situationEmotion-focused coping: change your reaction
PIAGET. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTDiagram: PIAGET. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.PIAGET. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTSchemas grow by ASSIMILATION (fit new info into an old schema) and ACCOMMODATION (change the schema)1Sensorimotorbirth–2 yearsLearns through senses and movement. Keyachievement: OBJECT PERMANENCE. Strangeranxiety.2Preoperational2–7 yearsSymbolic thought, pretend play. EGOCENTRISM;centration; no conservation.3Concrete operational7–11 yearsCONSERVATION and logical thought aboutconcrete objects. Understands others’perspectives.4Formal operational11 + yearsAbstract reasoning, hypothetical and moralthinking.Mnemonic: “Silly People Cook Food.”
ERIKSON. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTDiagram: ERIKSON. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT.ERIKSON. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT1Trust vs. mistrustinfancy, 0–1Are my needs met? Builds hope.2Autonomy vs. shame and doubttoddler, 1–3Can I do things myself? Builds will.3Initiative vs. guiltpreschool, 3–6Is it acceptable for me to act and plan?Builds purpose.4Industry vs. inferiorityschool age, 6–12Can I make it in the world of people andthings? Builds competence.5Identity vs. role confusionadolescence, 12–20Who am I? Builds fidelity.6Intimacy vs. isolationyoung adult, 20–40Can I love and be loved? Builds love.7Generativity vs. stagnationmiddle adult, 40–65Can I make my life count? Builds care.8Integrity vs. despairlate adult, 65 +Was my life worthwhile? Builds wisdom.Each stage is a CONFLICT resolved across the whole lifespan. Erikson is the only one of the three that runs to death.
KOHLBERG. MORAL DEVELOPMENTDiagram: KOHLBERG. MORAL DEVELOPMENT.KOHLBERG. MORAL DEVELOPMENT1PRECONVENTIONAL · Obedience and punishmentstage 1“I will be punished if I do it.” Morality isabout consequences to ME.2PRECONVENTIONAL · Self-intereststage 2“What is in it for me?” Instrumental exchange.3CONVENTIONAL · Conformity, good boy / nice girlstage 3“People will think badly of me.” Socialapproval.4CONVENTIONAL · Law and orderstage 4“It is against the rules.” Maintaining socialorder.5POSTCONVENTIONAL · Social contractstage 5“The law should serve the greater good; it canbe changed.”6POSTCONVENTIONAL · Universal ethicsstage 6“Some principles outrank any law.” Abstract,self-chosen ethics.Levels come in pairs. Preconventional = self. Conventional = society’s rules. Postconventional = abstract principle.
FREUD · structure, stages, defensesDiagram: FREUD · structure, stages, defenses.FREUD · structure, stages, defensesIDunconscious drivesPLEASURE principlepresent from birthEGOmediatorREALITY principleSUPEREGOinternalized moralsIDEALISTIC principleguilt and pridePSYCHOSEXUAL STAGESOral · 0–1Anal · 1–3Phallic · 3–5Latency · 5-pubertyGenital · puberty +Frustration or overindulgence ⇒ FIXATIONDEFENSE MECHANISMSRepressionpush it out of awareness entirelyDenialrefuse to accept realityProjectionattribute your own impulse to someone elseRationalizationinvent a logical-sounding excuseDisplacementredirect the feeling onto a safer targetRegressionrevert to childlike behaviorReaction formationact as the exact opposite of how you feelSublimationchannel it into something socially useful: the most mature on this list
ATTACHMENT · Ainsworth’s Strange SituationDiagram: ATTACHMENT · Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.ATTACHMENT · Ainsworth’s Strange SituationStyleOn separationOn reunionSECUREDistressed when the caregiver leavesComforted quickly, returns to exploringAvoidant (insecure)Little or no distressIgnores or avoids the caregiverAmbivalent / anxious-resistant(insecure)Extreme distress, clingy beforehandSeeks contact AND pushes it away: cannot be soothedDisorganized (insecure)Inconsistent, no strategyOdd, contradictory behavior: freezing, approaching thenfleeing. Linked to abuseAmbivalent = too much reaction. Avoidant = too little. Disorganized = no coherent pattern at all.

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